Fundamentals of Psycholinguistics
Eva M. Fernandez and Helen Smith Cairns
Melasari288@gmail.com
chapter 1.
By the use of language, people as the users are able
to create new vocabulary. That is about the creativity of human language.
The creativity itself is different from the communication system. Everyday
people hear new word. About the creativity, human can use language to
deliver, communicate, do conversation and interact, about what we think
of. Language is a system to pair signals with meaning. It uses sounds
and meaning to be paired. Language has grammar and every words of its
language are its lexicon. In formal situation people interpret a word
based on the basis of the meaning of its word and the sentence use right
grammar it is called descriptive grammar. If the sender deliver their
sentence based on what their perspective even the grammar sometime ungrammatically
they think that is also right, it is called as perspective grammar.
Language has phonological rules, describes the sound
pattern of language by people and creates individual words and for the
rhythm and intonation. Sometimes when people hear someone talk, they
can indicate what language they used, know the grammar and its lexicon,
it’s called linguistic competence. If people do communication, in
the process of producing the sentence called as linguistic performance
Psycholinguistics
is an interdisciplinary field of study in which the goals are to understand how
people acquaire language. How people use language to speak and understand one
another, and how language is represented and processed in brain.
Chapter 2
All languages cut from the same mold, they are similar
even there are so many languages in the world. Every languages have
their own way to combine sounds into word, word into phrases, phrases
into sentences although the structure can be differed among languages.
To produce sounds we need to deal with some organs such as, articulator
(lips, teeth, alveolar ridge, hard palate, mouth etc) and cavities (nasal,
oral and so on).The classification about speech sound is manner of articulation.
The place where the obstruent consonants can be articulated is called
as places of articulation.
The phonological component is about to specify what
sound unites the language to make words and how the unit of sounds are
combined into words, syllables, and intonational phrases. The phonological
component has 4 key roles:
- It specifies the language’s phonemic inventory.
- It adds predictable phonetic details by the application of phonological rules.
- It specifies the languages phonotactic constraints.
- It supplies or prosody
The morphological component combines morpheme (the
smallest unit of meaning), it decides into two types such as bound (word
add by suffixes) and free morpheme (individual verb).
A language creates the structures of its sentences
is syntax. The three fundamental kinds of operation of syntax such as:
- It creates basic structures for sentences.
- It combines simple sentences to form complex ones.
- It moves (or reorder) elements of sentences.
chapter 3
The
creativity of Human Language
Language
is a system that allows people immense creativity. A linguistic creativity
especially.
Language
as Distinct from Speech, Thought, and Communication.
Language
is the primary communication system for the human species. One of the main
themes of this book is to identify the unique aspects of human linguistic
system, it helpful to distinguish between language and the others system with
which usually interacts : speech, thought and communication.
Some
Characteristics of the Linguistic System
Language
is a formal system for pairing signals with meanings. Language is system that
connects signals.
The
Distinction between Descriptive and Prescriptive Grammar
a. Me
and Shinta went to the supermarket.
b. Shinta
and me went to the supermarket.
The universality of Human Language
It has profound consequences for the way
psycholinguistic analyze the human use of language.
Linguistic Competence
and Linguistic Performance
Linguistic competence
is technical term, different from the usual meaning of the word competence.
Linguistic performance
is the use of such knowledge in the actual processing of sentences, by which we
mean their production and comprehension.
The Universality of
Human Language
All of language have
the similar meaning, even many language
in the world. Language has a lexicon and grammar. This is what psycholinguistic
mean by the statement that all languages are cut from the same mold.
Language processing
Reading, writing,
speaking, listening and memory, for example how words on paper are turned into
meaning in the mind.
Language is Species
Specific
If we define some sort,
every species have their own language, to communication as a way to convey
messages between individuals. And we as a human have a communication system.
And animals cannot talk like us as a human and they do not have a gesture in a
communication like us. For instance, if a crocodile can learn human language
and they can speak like a human do, then human language would not be specific
anymore.
Language is Universal
in Grammar
We were born in this
world we have own language such as our mother tounge we did not need to learn a
language because it came spontaneous in our brain and it neutral.
In this world we have
so many language spoken, and each are very different, however there are
profound similarities among the languages of the world, for the example, in
Indonesia such as , javanesse language and lampungnesse language they have same
language but different meaning .
For instance :
javanesse said “ manuk” the meaning is burung .
Lampungnesse said “manuk” the meaning is
ayam.
Like that.
Language is stored in the brain. Aphasia is a language
impairment linked to a brain lesion. Kinds of aphasia, the first one
is broca aphasia that is characterized by halting effortfull speech,it
is associated with damage involving broca’s area in the frontal lobe
of the left hemisphere. The second one is, wernicke’s aphasia, it
is characterized by fluent meaningless strings. It is caused by damage
involving wernicke’s area in the temporal lobe of the left hemisphere.
Neurolinguistic is the study of the representation of language in the
brain and the discovery of aphasia as led to the birth of this interdisciplinary
field.
Chapter 4
Children acquires language knowledge in a brief time
and with a little apparent effort. This chapter discussed about a presdiposition
for language and characteristic of language. Children need time to have
language acquisition such as for the first one is from before birth
to 12 months. Since they are born they learned prosody such as the rhythm
and intonation of the language of the environment. Babies use regularities
in the rhythm and intonation of the input to assist in the identification
of the phonemic inventory and phonotactic constraints of the language
or languages in their environment, and will eventually use rhythmic
and intonational. Signals to help identify the boundaries of syntactic
constituents. And the second part is from 12 to 24 months. This is as
their period to start saying a word or one word stage for instance “milk”
the baby will say this word if they request or to explain something
related in. The last one is a period of preschool years. After children
mastering one word stage then they will learn to produce a sentence.
They already have a number of vocabulary then they will try to combine
it as a sentence.
Chapter 5
This chapter talks about producing speech by the
speaker. The important job for speaker is to encode the idea becomes
utterance. The utterance itself is about information that the hearer
will use to decode the speech signal. The speaker delivers the messages
with a set of word and grammar to convey the meaning then the hearer
should intend the meaning from the speaker. To produce a sentence the
speaker should intend to communicate the idea or other information,
it is called as preverbal message.
This is how the speaker producing speech
Diagram of some processing operations, ordered left
to right, performed by the speaker when producing the sentence “The girl pets the dog”.
Production begins with an idea for a message (the light bulb on the
far left) triggering a process of lexical selection. The capsule-like
figures represent lexical items for the words girl, dog, and pet, activated based on
the intended meaning for the message; these include basic lexical semantic
and morphosyntactic information (top half) and phonological form information
(bottom half). The tree diagram in the center represents the sentence’s
syntactic form. The phonetic transcription to the right represents the
sentence’s eventual phonological form, sent on to the articulatory
system, which produces the corresponding speech signal. The different
representations are accessed and built very rapidly and with some degree
of overlap.
Chapter 6
This chapter talks about speech perception and lexical
access as the hearer. This is how the hearer receive the information
from the hearer;
Diagram of some processing operations, ordered right
to left, performed by the hearer when decoding the sentence “The girl
pets the dog”. The speech signal on the far right, perceived by the
auditory system, serves to recover the phonological form for the sentence,
indicated by the phonetic transcription. The capsule-like figures in
the middle represent lexical items, activated by their phonological
form (bottom half), but whose morphosyntactic features (included in
the top half) help the processor recover the intended syntactic structure.
The tree diagram on the left represents the sentence’s syntactic form,
used to decode the meaning of the sentence. The light bulb indicates
that the hearer has successfully recovered the idea the speaker intended
to convey.
Chapter 7
This chapter discusses about structural processing
for the hearer. Identifying the syntactic relations between the perceived
set of words is the essential next step, which eventually leads to recovering
the basic meaning the speaker intended. Reconstructing the structure
of a sentence, the focus of this chapter, is a job undertaken by the
structural processor. A review of the basic operations of the syntax
will assist in understanding the operation of the parser:
- It creates basic structures;
- It combines simple sentences into complex ones; and
- It moves elements of sentences from one structural position to another.
If the parser breaks up complex sentences into clause-sized
units, as the click displacement studies suggest, then sentence processing
should be easier when clause boundaries are easier to locate. Consider
the following example:
a. Mirabelle knows the boys next door.
b. Mirabelle knows the boys are rowdy.
Deconstructing the incoming signal into individual
clauses and computing their internal structure is not the only task
that the parser faces during sentence processing that is structural
ambiguity, as examples:
The man saw the boy with the binoculars. Such sentences
have two alternative syntactic structures: for the sentence, the PP with the binoculars is
either a modifier of boy or an argument of
the verb saw; the two structures
are diagrammed in Figure a and b. Globally ambiguous sentences can be
very informative about how people process sentences; as it turns out,
people generally fail to notice the global ambiguity and have one preferred
interpretation.
So ambiguity per se does not always incur processing
costs, as we will see later.
Chapter 8
This chapter talks about remembering sentences, processing
discourse, and having conversation. Discourse is used to refer to sets
of sentences that have some sort of connection to each other. Other
terms used to refer to the same concept (by linguists, psycholinguists,
and scholars in a number of other fields) include text and narrative. The topic of a given discourse segment
– as well as its participants, its context, and its function – will determine the
amount of knowledge necessary for successful engagement with it. When
the sentence produced, it held in working memory span that is a storage
to collect the information. Three important things happen to sentences
when they get stored in longterm memory. First, information
about structure and even individual lexical items is lost, while meaning
is retained. Second, meanings of many sentences are combined,
so individual sentences no longer have independent representations.
Third, inferences are added to representations of meaning.
Reference
Eva M. Fernández and Helen Smith Cairns, Fundamentals
of Psycholinguistics
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